Glossary

A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | XYZ

A

absolute poverty   A level of economic deprivation in which people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life.

achieved status   A social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort.

activity theory   The proposition that people tend to shift gears in late middle age and find substitutes for previous statuses, roles, and activities.

acute illness   Illness of limited duration from which the patient recovers or dies.

age stratification   The inequalities, differences, segregation, or conflict between age groups.

ageism   Prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age, particularly when they are older persons.

agents of socialization   Those persons, groups, or institutions that teach people what they need to know in order to participate in society.

aggregate   A collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but have little else in common.

aging   The physical, psychological, and social processes associated with growing older.

alienation   A feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself.

altruism   Behaviour intended to help others and done without any expectation of personal benefit.

analysis   The process through which data are organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn.

animism   The belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces that have an impact on events in society.

anomie   Émile Durkheim's designation for a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and a sense of purpose in society.

anticipatory socialization   The process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future roles.

ascribed status   A social position that is conferred on a person at birth or received involuntarily later in life.

asymmetrical warfare   Attacks by small groups of people who usually do not represent states or governments upon much larger and stronger opponents.

assimilation   A process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture.

authoritarian political system   A political system controlled by rulers who deny popular participation in government.

authoritarian personality   Characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypic thinking.

authority   Power that people accept as legitimate rather than coercive.

avian influenza   A virus affecting birds that is believed to have the potential to spread to humans and to become a pandemic that will kill millions of people around the world.

B

bilateral descent   A system of tracing descent through both the mother's and father's sides of the family.

body consciousness   How a person perceives and feels about his or her body; it also includes an awareness of social conditions in society that contribute to this self-knowledge.

bourgeoisie (or capitalist class)   Karl Marx's term for the class comprised of those who own and control the means of production.

bureaucracy   An organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labour, explicit rules and procedures, and impersonality in personnel matters.

bureaucratic personality   A psychological construct that describes those workers who are more concerned with following correct procedures than they are with doing the job correctly.

C

capitalism   An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, from which personal profits can be derived through market competition and without government intervention.

category   A number of people who may never have met one another but who share a similar characteristic.

central city   The densely populated centre of a metropolis.

charismatic authority   Power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal qualities.

chronic illness   Term applied to long-term or permanent conditions that may or may not be fatal.

chronological age   A person's age based on date of birth.

church   A large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it.

civil disobedience   Nonviolent action that seeks to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it.

class   The relative location of a person or group within a larger society, based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources.

class conflict   Karl Marx's term for the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class.

classism   The belief that persons in the upper or privileged class are superior to those in the lower or working class, particularly in regard to values, behaviour, and lifestyles.

class system   A type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the kinds of work people do.

cohabitation   The sharing of a household by a couple who live together without being legally married.

cohort   A category of people who are born within a specified period in time or who share some specified characteristic.

collective behaviour   Voluntary, often spontaneous activity that is engaged in by a large number of people and typically violates dominant group norms and values.

commonsense knowledge   A form of knowing that guides ordinary conduct in everyday life.

complete observation   Research in which the investigator systematically observes a social process but does not take part in it.

conflict perspective   The sociological approach that views groups in society as engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources.

conformity   The process of maintaining or changing behaviour to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group.

content analysis   The systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life.

contingent work   Part-time or temporary work.

control group   Subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable but later are compared to subjects in the experimental group.

core nation   According to world systems theory, a dominant capitalist centre characterized by high levels of industrialization and urbanization and a high degree of control over the world economy.

corporate crime   An illegal act committed by corporate employees on behalf of the corporation and with its support.

corporation   A large-scale organization that has legal powers (such as the ability to enter into contracts and buy and sell property) separate from its individual owner or owners.

counterculture   A group that strongly rejects dominant societal values and norms and seeks alternative lifestyles.

credentialism   A process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications.

crime   Behaviour that violates criminal law and is punishable with fines, jail terms, and other sanctions.

crowd   A relatively large number of people who are in one another's immediate vicinity.

crude birth rate   The number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year.

crude death rate   The number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year.

cult   A religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of a society.

cultural artifacts   Products of individual activity, social organizations, technology, and cultural patterns.

cultural capital   Pierre Bourdieu's term for people's social assets, including their values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture.

cultural imperialism   The extensive infusion of one nation's culture into other nations.

cultural lag   William Ogburn's term for a gap between the technical development of a society (material culture) and its moral and legal institutions (nonmaterial culture).

cultural relativism   The belief that the behaviours and customs of a society must be viewed and analyzed by the culture's own standards.

cultural transmission   The process by which children and recent immigrants become acquainted with the dominant cultural beliefs, values, norms, and accumulated knowledge of a society.

cultural universals   Customs and practices that occur across all societies.

culture   The knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or society.

culture shock   The disorientation that people feel when they encounter cultures radically different from their own.

D

deductive approach   Research in which the investigator begins with a theory and then collects information and data to test the theory.

democracy   A political system in which people hold the ruling power, either directly or indirectly.

democratic socialism   An economic and political system that combines private ownership of some of the means of production, governmental distribution of some essential goods and services, and free elections.

demographic transition   The process by which some societies have moved from high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates as a result of technological development.

demography   A subfield of sociology that examines population size, composition, and distribution.

denomination   A large, organized religion characterized by accommodation to society but frequently lacking the ability or intention to dominate society.

dependency theory   The perspective that global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact that low-income countries have been exploited by high-income countries.

dependent variable   A variable that is assumed to depend on or be caused by one or more other (independent) variables.

descriptive study   Research that attempts to describe social reality or provide facts about some group, practice, or event.

deviance   Any behaviour, belief, or condition that violates cultural norms in the society or group in which it occurs.

differential association theory   The proposition that individuals have a greater tendency to deviate from societal norms when they frequently associate with persons who are more favourable toward deviance than conformity.

diffusion   The transmission of cultural items or social practices from one group or society to another.

disability   A health condition that reduces a person's ability to perform tasks he or she would normally do at a given stage of life and that may result in stigmatization or discrimination against the person.

discourses   All that is written, spoken, or otherwise represented through language and communication systems.

discovery   The process of learning about something previously unknown or unrecognized.

discrimination   Actions or practices of dominant group members (or their representatives) that have a harmful impact on members of a subordinate group.

disengagement theory   The proposition that older persons make a normal and healthy adjustment to aging when they detach themselves from their social roles and prepare for their eventual death.

dramaturgical analysis   The study of social interaction that compares everyday life to a theatrical presentation.

dual-earner family   A family in which both partners are in the labour force.

dyad   A group consisting of two members.

dysfunctions   A term referring to the undesirable consequences of any element of a society.

E

ecclesia   A religious organization that, is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society.

economy   The social institution that ensures the maintenance of society through the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

education   The social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure.

egalitarian family   A family structure in which both partners share power and authority equally.

ego   According to Sigmund Freud, the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id.

elder abuse   A term used to describe physical abuse, psychological abuse, financial exploitation, and medical abuse or neglect of people age 65 or older.

elite model   A view of society in which power in political systems is concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites and the masses are relatively powerless.

emigration   The movement of people out of a geographic area to take up residency elsewhere.

empirical approach   Research that attempts to answer questions through a systematic collection and analysis of data.

employment equity   A strategy to eliminate the effects of discrimination and to make employment opportunities available to groups who have been excluded.

environmental racism   The belief that a disproportionate number of hazardous facilities are placed in low-income areas populated largely by people of colour.

epidemic   Sudden, significant increase in the numbers of people contracting a disease.

ethnic group   A collection of people distinguished, by others or by themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics.

ethnicity   The cultural heritage or identity of a group based on factors such as language or country of origin.

ethnic pluralism   The coexistence of a variety of distinct racial and ethnic groups within one society.

ethnocentrism   The tendency to regard one's own culture and group as the standard, and thus superior, whereas all other groups are seen as inferior.

ethnography   A detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years.

ethnomethodology   The study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves.

experiment   A research method involving a carefully designed test in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behaviour.

experimental group   Subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable.

explanatory study   Research that attempts to explain relationships and to provide information on why certain events do or do not occur.

extended family   A family unit composed of relatives in addition to parents and children who live in the same household.

F

fad   A temporary but widely copied activity followed enthusiastically by large numbers of people.

faith   Unquestioning belief that does not require proof or scientific evidence.

families we choose   Social arrangements that include intimate relationships between couples and close relationships with other couples, and with other adults and children.

family   A relationship in which people live together with commitment, form an economic unit and care for any young, and consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group.

family of orientation   The family into which a person is born and in which early socialization usually takes place.

family of procreation   The family that a person forms by having or adopting children.

fashion   A currently valued style of behaviour, thinking, or appearance.

feminism   The belief that all people-both women and men-are equal and that they should be valued equally and have equal rights.

feminist perspective   The sociological approach that focuses on the significance of gender in understanding and explaining inequalities that exist between men and women in the household, in the paid labour force, and in the realms of politics, law, and culture.

feminization of poverty   The trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty.

fertility   The actual level of childbearing for an individual or a population.

field research   The study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play.

folkways   Informal norms or everyday customs that may be violated without serious consequences within a particular culture.

formal education   Learning that takes place within an academic setting, such as school, which has a planned instructional process and teachers who convey specific knowledge, skills, and thinking processes to students.

formal organization   A highly structured group formed for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals.

functional age   A term used to describe observable individual attributes, such as physical appearance, mobility, strength, coordination, and mental capacity, that are used to assign people to age categories.

functional illiteracy   The condition in which reading and writing skills are inadequate to carry out everyday activities.

functionalist perspective   The sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system.

G

Gemeinschaft    (guh-MINE-shoft) A traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability.

gender   The culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males found in meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with "femininity" and "masculinity."

gender bias   Behaviour that shows favouritism toward one gender over the other.

gender identity   A person's perception of the self as female or male.

gender role   Attitudes, behaviour, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process.

gender socialization   The aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society.

generalized other   George Herbert Mead's term for the child's awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child's subculture.

genocide   The deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation.

gentrification   The process by which members of the middle and upper-middle classes move into the central city area and renovate existing properties.

Gesellschaft    (guh-ZELL-shoft) A large, urban society in which social bonds are based on impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values.

global interdependence   A relationship in which the lives of all people are intertwined closely and any one nation's problems are part of a larger global problem.

goal displacement   A process that occurs in organizations when the rules become an end in themselves and organizational survival becomes more important than achievement of goals.

gossip   Rumours about the personal lives of individuals.

government   The formal organization that has the legal and political authority to regulate the relationships among members within a society and between the society and those outside its borders.

gross national income   All the goods and services produced in a country in a given year, plus the income earned outside the country by individuals or corporations.

groupthink   The process by which members of a cohesive group arrive at a decision that many individual members privately believe is unwise.

H

health   The state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.

health care   Any activity intended to improve health.

hermaphrodite   A person in whom sexual differentiation is ambiguous or incomplete.

heterosexism   The belief that heterosexuality is the only valid form of sexual behaviour.

hidden curriculum   The transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in rules, routines, and regulations of schools.

high-income economies   Countries with an annual per capita Gross National Income over $9,386.

homogamy   The pattern of individuals marrying those who have similar characteristics, such as race/ethnicity, religious background, age, education, or social class.

homophobia   Extreme prejudice directed at gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and others who are perceived as not being heterosexual.

hospice   A homelike facility that provides supportive care for patients with terminal illnesses.

hypothesis   In research studies, a tentative statement of the relationship between two or more concepts or variables.

I

id   Sigmund Freud's term for the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification.

ideal culture   The values and standards of behaviour that people in a society profess to hold.

ideal type   An abstract model that describes the recurring characteristics of some phenomenon.

illegitimate opportunity structures   Circumstances that provide an opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve through legitimate channels.

immigration   The movement of people into a geographic area to take up residency.

impression management (or presentation of self)   A term for people's efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favourable to their own interests or image.

income   The economic gain derived from wages, salaries, income transfers (governmental aid), and ownership of property.

independent variable   A variable that is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable.

inductive approach   Research in which the investigator collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data.

industrialization   The process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries.

infant mortality rate   The number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year.

infertility   A medical term used to describe one year of attempting to achieve pregnancy without success.

informal education   Learning that occurs in a spontaneous, unplanned way.

informal structure   A term used to describe the aspect of organizational life in which participants' day-to-day activities and interactions ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and procedures of the bureaucracy.

ingroup   A group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity.

institutionalized racism   A term used to describe the rules, procedures, and practices that directly and deliberately prevent minorities from having full and equal involvement in society.

intergenerational mobility   The social movement (upward or downward) experienced by family members from one generation to the next.

internal colonialism   According to conflict theorists, a practice that occurs when members of a racial or ethnic group are conquered or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group.

interview   A research method using a data collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers.

intragenerational mobility   The social movement (upward or downward) experienced by individuals within their own lifetime.

invasion   The process by which a new category of people or type of land use arrives in an area previously occupied by another group or land use.

invention   The process of reshaping existing cultural items into a new form.

iron law of oligarchy   According to Robert Michels, the tendency of bureaucracies to be ruled by a few people.

J

job deskilling   A reduction in the proficiency needed to perform a specific job that leads to a corresponding reduction in the wages paid for that job.

juvenile delinquency   The violation of a law or the commission of a status offence by young people less than a specific age.

K

karoshi   A Japanese term referring to employees who die from overwork.

kinship   A social network of people based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption.

L

labelling theory  The proposition that deviants are those people who have been successfully labelled as such by others.

labour union   An organization of employees who join together to bargain with an employer or a group of employers over wages, benefits, and working conditions.

language   A system of symbols that expresses ideas and enables people to think and communicate with one another.

latent functions   Unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants.

laws   Formal, standardized norms that have been enacted by legislatures and are enforced by formal sanctions.

liberation theology   Christian movement that advocates freedom from political subjugation within a traditional perspective and the need for social transformation to benefit the poor and downtrodden.

life chances   Max Weber's term for the extent to which persons have access to important scarce resources, such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and employment.

life expectancy   The average length of time a group of individuals of the same age will live.

looking-glass self   Charles Horton Cooley's term for the way in which a person's sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others.

low-income economies   Countries with an annual per capita Gross National Income of $765 or less.

low-income cutoff   The income level at which a family may be in "straitened circumstances" because it spends considerably more on the basic necessities of life (food, shelter, and clothing) than the average family.

lower-middle-income economies   Countries with an annual per capita Gross National Income between $766 and $3,035.

M

macrolevel analysis   Sociological theory and research that focuses on whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems.

majority (dominant) group   An advantaged group that has superior resources and rights in a society.

manifest functions   Open, stated, and intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or institution.

marginal job   A position that differs from the employment norms of the society in which it is located.

marriage   A legally recognized and/or socially approved arrangement between two or more individuals that carries certain rights and obligations and usually involves sexual activity.

mass   A large collection of people who share an interest in a specific idea or issue but who are not in another's immediate physical vicinity.

mass behaviour   Collective behaviour that takes place when people (who often are geographically separated from one another) respond to the same event in much the same way.

mass education   Free, public schooling for wide segments of a nation's population.

mass hysteria   A form of dispersed collective behaviour that occurs when a large number of people react with strong emotions and self-destructive behaviour to a real or perceived threat.

master status   A term used to describe the most important status a person occupies.

material culture   A component of culture that consists of the physical or tangible creations (such as clothing, shelter, and art) that members of a society make, use, and share.

matriarchal family   A family structure in which authority is held by the eldest female (usually the mother).

matriarchy   A hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by women.

matrilineal descent   A system of tracing descent through the mother's side of the family.

means of production   Karl Marx's term for tools, land, factories, and money for investment that form the economic basis of a society.

mechanical solidarity   Émile Durkheim's term for the social cohesion that exists in preindustrial societies, in which there is a minimal division of labour and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds.

medicalization   The process whereby an object or a condition becomes defined by society as a physical or psychological illness.

medicine   An institutionalized system for the scientific diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness.

megalopolis   A continuous concentration of two or more cities and their suburbs that have grown until they form an interconnected urban area.

meritocracy   A hierarchy system in which all positions are rewarded based on people's ability and credentials.

metropolis   One or more central cities and their surrounding suburbs that dominate the economic and cultural life of a region.

microlevel analysis   Sociological theory and research that focuses on small groups rather than large-scale social structures.

migration   The movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency.

minority (subordinate) group   A disadvantaged group whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.

mixed economy   An economic system that combines elements of a market economy (capitalism) with elements of a command economy (socialism).

mob   A highly emotional crowd whose members engage in, or are ready to engage in, violence against a specific target, which may be a person, a category of people, or physical property.

modernization theory   A perspective that links global inequality to different levels of economic development and suggests that low-income economies can move to middle- and high-income economies by achieving self-sustained economic growth.

monarchy   A political system in which power resides in one person or family and is passed from generation to generation through lines of inheritance.

monogamy   Marriage to one person at a time.

monotheism   Belief in a single, supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events, such as the creation of the world.

moral crusades   Public and media awareness campaigns that help generate public and political support for moral entrepreneurs' causes.

moral entrepreneurs   People or groups who take an active role in trying to have particular behaviours defined as deviant.

mores   Strongly held norms with moral and ethical connotations that may not be violated without serious consequences in a particular culture.

mortality   The incidence of death in a population.

multinational corporations   Large companies that are headquartered in one country and have subsidiaries or branches in other countries.

N

network enterprise   Separate businesses, which may be companies or parts of companies, join together for specific projects that become the focus of the network.

new international division of labour theory   The perspective that commodity production is being split into fragments that can be assigned to whichever part of the world can provide the most profitable combination of capital and labour.

nonmaterial culture   A component of culture that consists of the abstract or intangible human creations of society (such as attitudes, beliefs, and values) that influence people's behaviour.

nontheistic religion   A religion based on a belief in divine spiritual forces, such as sacred principles of thought and conduct, rather than a god or gods.

nonverbal communication   The transfer of information between persons without the use of speech.

normative approach   The use of religion, custom, habit, tradition, or authority to answer important questions.

norms   Established rules of behaviour or standards of conduct.

nuclear family   A family made up of one or two parents and their dependent children, all of whom live apart from other relatives.

O

objective   Free from distorted subjective (personal or emotional) bias.

occupation   A category of jobs that involve similar activities at different work sites.

occupational (or white-collar) crime   A term used to describe illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or in dealing with their financial affairs.

oligopoly   The situation that exists when several companies overwhelmingly control an entire industry.

operational definition   An explanation of an abstract concept in terms of observable features that are specific enough to measure the variable.

organic solidarity   Émile Durkheim's term for the social cohesion that exists in industrial (and perhaps postindustrial) societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence.

organized crime   A business operation that supplies illegal goods and services for profit.

outgroup   A term used to describe a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility.

overt racism   Racism that may take the form of public statements about the "inferiority" of members of a racial or ethnic group.

P

panic   A form of crowd behaviour that occurs when a large number of people react with strong emotions and self-destructive behaviour to a real or perceived threat.

participant observation   A research method in which researchers collect systematic observations while being part of the activities of the group they are studying.

patriarchal family   A family structure in which authority is held by the eldest male (usually the father).

patriarchy   A hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men.

patrilineal descent   A system of tracing descent through the father's side of the family.

pay equity (comparable worth)   The belief that wages ought to reflect the worth of a job, not the gender or race of the worker.

peer group   A group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age.

peripheral nations   According to world systems theory, nations that are dependent on core nations for capital, have little or no industrialization, and have uneven patterns of urbanization.

personal space   The immediate area surrounding a person that the person claims as private.

perspective   An overall approach to or viewpoint on some subject.

pink-collar occupation   Relatively low-paying, nonmanual, semiskilled positions primarily held by women.

pluralist model   An analysis of political systems that views power as widely dispersed throughout many competing interest groups.

polite racism   A term used to describe an attempt to disguise a dislike of others through behaviour that outwardly is nonprejudicial.

political crime   Illegal or unethical acts involving the usurpation of power by government officials, or illegal or unethical acts perpetrated against the government by outsiders seeking to make a political statement, undermine the government, or overthrow it.

political party   An organization whose purpose is to gain and hold legitimate control of government.

political socialization   The process by which people learn political attitudes, values, and behaviour.

politics   The social institution through which power is acquired and exercised by some people and groups.

polyandry   The concurrent marriage of one woman with two or more men.

polygamy   The concurrent marriage of a person of one sex with two or more members of the opposite sex.

polygyny   The concurrent marriage of one man with two or more women.

polytheism   Belief in more than one god.

popular culture   The component of culture that consists of activities, products, and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to members of the middle and working classes.

population   In a research study, those persons about whom we want to be able to draw conclusions.

population composition   In demography, the biological and social characteristics of a population.

population pyramid   A graphic representation of the distribution of a population by sex and age.

positivism   A belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry.

postindustrial economy   An economy that is based on the provision of services rather than goods.

postmodern perspectives   The sociological approach that attempts to explain social life in modern societies that are characterized by postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications.

power   According to Max Weber, the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others.

power elite   C. Wright Mills's term for a small clique composed of the top corporate, political, and military officials.

prejudice   A negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about members of selected groups.

prestige   The respect or regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others.

preventive medicine   Medicine that emphasizes a healthy lifestyle in order to prevent poor health before it occurs.

primary deviance   A term used to describe the initial act of rule breaking.

primary group   Charles Horton Cooley's term for a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time.

primary sector production   The sector of the economy that extracts raw materials and natural resources from the environment.

primary sex characteristics   The genitalia used in the reproductive process.

profane   A term used to describe the everyday, secular, or "worldly," aspects of life.

profession   A high-status, knowledge-based occupation.

proletariat (or working class)   Karl Marx's term for those who must sell their labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood.

propaganda   Information provided by individuals or groups that have a vested interest in furthering their own cause or damaging an opposing one.

public opinion   The political attitudes and beliefs communicated by ordinary citizens to decision makers.

punishment   An action designed to deprive a person of things of value (including liberty) because of some offence the person is thought to have committed.

Q

questionnaire   A research instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond.

R

race   A term used by many people to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristics, such as skin colour; also, a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of real or alleged physical characteristics, such as skin colour, hair texture, eye shape, or other subjectively selected attributes.

racial prejudice   Beliefs that certain racial groups are innately inferior to others or have a disproportionate number of negative traits.

racism   A set of ideas that implies the superiority of one social group over another on the basis of biological or cultural characteristics, together with the power to put these beliefs into practice in a way that denies or excludes minority women and men.

random sample   A selection in which everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being chosen; in other words, choice occurs by chance.

rationality   The process by which traditional methods of social organization, characterized by informality and spontaneity, are gradually replaced by efficiently administered formal rules and procedures (bureaucracy).

rational-legal authority   Power legitimized by law or written rules and procedures. Also referred to as bureaucratic authority.

reactivity   The tendency of experiment participants to change their behaviour in response to the presence of the researcher or to the fact that they know they are being studied.

real culture   The values and standards of behaviour that people actually follow (as contrasted with ideal culture).

reference group   A term used to describe a group that strongly influences a person's behaviour and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member.

relative homelessness   Being housed in a dwelling that fails to meet basic living standards.

relative poverty   A level of economic deprivation in which people may be able to afford basic necessities but still are unable to maintain an average standard of living.

reliability   In sociological research, the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results.

religion   A system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals, based on some sacred or supernatural realm, that guides human behaviour, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community.

replication   In sociological research, the repetition of the investigation in substantially the same way that it originally was conducted.

representative sample   A selection from a larger population that has the essential characteristics of the total population.

research   The process of systematically collecting information for the purposes of testing an existing theory or generating a new one.

research methods   Specific strategies or techniques for conducting research.  

resocialization   The process of learning a new set of attitudes, values, and behaviours different from those in one's previous background and experiences.

respondent   A person who provides data for analysis through an interview or questionnaire.

riot   Violent crowd behaviour that is fuelled by deep-seated emotions but is not directed at one specific target.

rituals   Regularly repeated and carefully prescribed forms of behaviour that symbolize a cherished value or belief.

role   A set of behavioural expectations associated with a given status.

role conflict   A situation in which incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time.

role exit   A situation in which people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self-identity.

role expectation   A term used to describe a group's or society's definition of the way a specific role ought to be played.

role performance   How a person actually plays a role.

role strain   The strain experienced by a person when incompatible demands are built into a single status that the person occupies.

role-taking   The process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person in order to understand the world from that person's point of view.

routinization of charisma   A term for the process by which charismatic authority is succeeded by a bureaucracy controlled by a rationally established authority or by a combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority.

rumour   An unsubstantiated report on an issue or subject.

S

sacred   A term used to describe those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural.

sample   The people who are selected from the population to be studied.

sanction   A reward for appropriate behaviour or a penalty for inappropriate behaviour.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis   The proposition that language shapes the view of reality of its speakers.

scapegoat   A person or group that is incapable of offering resistance to the hostility or aggression of others.

second shift   Arlie Hochschild's term for the domestic work that employed women perform at home after they complete their workday on the job.

secondary analysis   A research method in which researchers use existing material and analyze data that originally was collected by others.

secondary deviance   A term used to describe the process whereby a person who has been labelled deviant accepts that new identity and continues the deviant behaviour.

secondary group   A larger, more specialized group in which the members engage in more impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time.

secondary sector production   The sector of the economy that processes raw materials (from the primary sector) into finished goods.

secondary sex characteristics   The physical traits (other than reproductive organs) that identify an individual's sex.

sect   A relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith.

secularization   Movement of a group or society from a religious to a civil orientation.

segregation   A term used to describe the spatial and social separation of categories of people by race/ethnicity, class, gender, and/or religion.

self-concept   The totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves.

self-fulfilling prophecy   A situation in which a false belief or prediction produces behaviour that makes the originally false belief come true.

semiperipheral nation   According to world systems theory, a nation that is more developed than peripheral nations but less developed than core nations.

senile dementia   A term for diseases, such as Alzheimer's, that involve a progressive impairment of judgment and memory.

sex   A term used to describe the biological and anatomical differences between females and males.

sex ratio   A term used by demographers to denote the number of males for every hundred females in a given population.

sexism   The subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex.

sexual orientation   A person's preference for emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality).

sick role   Patterns of behaviour defined as appropriate for people who are sick.

significant others   Those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self.

simple supernaturalism   The belief that supernatural forces affect people's lives either positively or negatively.

small group   A collectivity small enough for all members to be acquainted with one another and to interact simultaneously.

social bond theory   The proposition that the likelihood of deviant behaviour increases when a person's ties to society are weakened or broken.

social change   The alteration, modification, or transformation of public policy, culture, or social institutions over time.

social construction of reality   The process by which our perception of reality is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that we give to an experience.

social control   Systematic practices developed by social groups to encourage conformity and to discourage deviance.

social Darwinism   The belief that those species of animals (including human beings) best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out.

social devaluation   A situation in which a person or group is considered to have less social value than other individuals or groups.

social distance   A term used to describe the extent to which people are willing to interact and establish relationships with members of racial and ethnic groups other than their own.

social exclusion   The process by which certain individuals and groups are systematically barred from access to positions that would enable them to have an autonomous livelihood in keeping with the social standards and values of a given social context.

social facts   Émile Durkheim's term for patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual.

social gerontology   The study of the social (nonphysical) aspects of aging.

social group   A group that consists of two or more people who interact frequently and share a common identity and a feeling of interdependence.

social institution   A set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs.

social interaction   The process by which people act toward or respond to other people.

social marginality   The state of being part insider and part outsider in the social structure.

social mobility   The movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another.

social movement   An organized group that acts consciously to promote or resist change through collective action.

social network   A series of social relationships that link an individual to others.

social solidarity   The state of having shared beliefs and values among members of a social group, along with intense and frequent interaction among group members.

social stratification   The hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on their control over basic resources.

social structure   The stable pattern of social relationships that exist within a particular group or society.

socialism   An economic system characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of collective goals, and centralized decision making.

socialization   The lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society.

societal consensus   A situation whereby the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioural expectations.

society   A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.

sociobiology   The systematic study of how biology affects social behaviour.

socioeconomic status (SES)   A combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of indicators, such as income, occupation, and education, to determine class location.

sociological imagination   C. Wright Mills's term for the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.

sociology   The systematic study of human society and social interaction.

sociology of family   The subdiscipline of sociology that attempts to describe and explain patterns of family life and variations in family structure.

special interest groups   Political coalitions comprised of individuals or groups that share a specific interest that they wish to protect or advance with the help of the political system.

split labour market   A term used to describe the division of the economy into two areas of employment: a primary sector or upper tier, composed of higher-paid (usually dominant group) workers in more secure jobs; and a secondary sector or lower tier, composed of lower-paid (often subordinate group) workers in jobs with little security and hazardous working conditions.

state   The political entity that possesses a legitimate monopoly over the use of force within its territory to achieve its goals.

status   A socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties.

status set   A term used to describe all the statuses that a person occupies at a given time.

status symbol   A material sign that informs others of a person's specific status.

stereotype   An overgeneralization about the appearance, behaviour, or other characteristics of all members of a group.

stigma   According to Erving Goffman, any physical or social attribute or sign that so devalues a person's social identity that it disqualifies that person from full social acceptance.

strain theory   The proposition that people feel strain when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to obtain because they do not have access to culturally approved means of achieving those goals.

street crime   All violent crime, certain property crimes, and certain morals crimes.

subculture   A group of people who share a distinctive set of cultural beliefs and behaviours that differ in some significant way from that of the larger society.

subliminal racism   A term used to describe an unconscious criticism of minorities.

succession   The process by which a new category of people or type of land use gradually predominates in an area formerly dominated by another group or activity.

superego   Sigmund Freud's term for the human conscience, consisting of the moral and ethical aspects of personality.

survey   A research method in which a number of respondents are asked identical questions through a systematic questionnaire or interview.

symbol   Anything that meaningfully represents something else.

symbolic crusade   Activity by an interest group in which the recognition of the crusaders' values by the government was at least as important as achieving their stated goal.

symbolic interactionist perspective   The sociological approach that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups.

systemic racism   A term that refers to the practices, rules, and procedures of social institutions that have the unintended consequence of excluding minority group members.

T

taboo   A more that is so strong that its violation is considered to be extremely offensive and even unmentionable.

technology   The knowledge, techniques, and tools that make it possible for people to transform resources into usable forms, and the knowledge and skills required to use them after they are developed.

terrorism   Acts of serious violence, planned and executed clandestinely, and committed in order to achieve political ends.

theism   A belief in a god or gods.

theory   A set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events.

total institution   Erving Goffman's term for a place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run the institution.

totalitarian political system   A political system in which the state seeks to regulate all aspects of people's public and private lives.

tracking   The assignment of students to specific courses and educational programs based on their test scores, previous grades, or both.

traditional authority   Power that is legitimized on the basis of long-standing custom.

transsexual   A person who believes that he or she was born with the body of the wrong sex.

transvestite   A male who lives as a woman or a female who lives as a man but does not alter the genitalia.

triad   A group composed of three members.

triangulation   Using several different research methods, data sources, investigators, and/or theoretical perspectives in the same study.

U

upper-middle-income economies   Countries with an annual per capita Gross National Income between $3,036 and $9,385.

unemployment rate   The percentage of unemployed persons in the labour force actively seeking jobs.

universal health care system   System in which all citizens receive medical services paid for through taxation revenues.

unstructured interview   A research method involving an extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.

urban sociology   A subfield of sociology that examines social relationships and political and economic structures in the city.

urbanization   The process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas.

V

validity   In sociological research, the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.

value   A collective idea about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture.

value contradiction   A situation in which values conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive.

variable   In sociological research, any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to another.

visible minority   Refers to an official government category of nonwhite, non-Caucasian individuals.

W

wage gap   A term used to describe the disparity between women's and men's earnings.

wealth   The value of all of a person's or family's economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property.

world systems theory   The perspective that the capitalist world economy is a global system divided into a hierarchy of three major types of nations-core, semiperipheral, and peripheral-in which upward or downward mobility is conditioned by the resources and obstacles that characterize the international system.